medieval worlds ‒ comparative and interdisciplinary studies, No. 21/2024

This paper delves into the complex legacy of the Han dynasty’s collapse and its impact on subsequent Chinese historiography, particularly through the legitimacy or »zhengtong« debate. Examining how the Han’s cultural and political glory influenced historical narratives of later periods, the author compares the Han’s legacy with that of the Roman Empire in Europe, highlighting a similar quest for legitimacy by successor regimes. Central to his analysis is the role of Confucian thought, which shaped historians’ interpretations of power, culture, and ethics in post-Han China. Through key Confucian concepts like Dao and moral orthodoxy, scholars developed frameworks to evaluate whether successive rulers aligned with the ideals supposedly demonstrated by Han’s rule. The author further explores how these debates evolved, particularly during the Song dynasty, when historians expanded the legitimacy discourse to incorporate metaphysical elements of Dao and/or li (principle). This research contributes to understanding how historical thought in China shifted from viewing legitimacy through a Confucian moral lens to a nuanced, philosophical discourse that balanced historical reality with transcendental ethics.

Schlagworte: Chinese historiography, legitimacy (zhengtong) debates, Neo-Confucianism, metaphysical discourses, Ouyang Xiu, Sima Guang, Zhu Xi

Empires formed by nomadic peoples of Inner Asia in premodern times loom large in Eurasian history, both in terms of their influence on settled societies and for the broader geopolitical and cultural changes that they engendered. Historians have looked in the past at climate variability as a possible contributing, or even essential, factor in the rise and fall of such imperial formations. However, only with the development of historical climatology and the availability of reliable climatic reconstructions specifically relevant to the steppe regions where such empires originated has it become possible to formulate more precise hypotheses regarding climatic impacts on economic, political or social processes. This essay discusses the relationship between climate and steppe empires by presenting several case studies, including the Eastern Türk (603-630 CE), Uyghur (744-840 CE), and Mongol (c. 1206-1368) empires. The analysis of climatic phenomena affecting the rise, expansion, and fall of these formations serves to illustrate the potential uses of climate reconstructions and environmental data in the study of political, economic, social, and military dynamics. In addition to looking at the steppe region itself (chiefly Mongolia), the study focuses on specific vulnerabilities connected with the Mongols’ expansion in regions with environmental conditions unfamiliar to them. While this is an early and still preliminary study, it aims to lay the groundwork for future investigations and to offer insights into the use of paleoclimatic data for historical research. It must also be said that the hypotheses and results reported in the studies analyzed here have themselves engendered considerable discussion and controversy. Additional publications written in response or in parallel to the papers presented here are not discussed in detail because such discussions would require a much larger space, considering that each study covers a separate historical context, but are nonetheless noted for further reading.

Schlagworte: paleoclimate reconstructions, climatic impacts on premodern societies, medieval steppe nomads, Eastern Türk Empire (603-630), Uyghur Empire (744-840 CE), Mongol Empire (1206-c.1368)

Shared traditions played an important part in Western and Eastern Christianity, but Christian religious dogma in particular was at the heart of a debate on Mediterranean cohesion and conflict, as can be illustrated by the ecumenical councils held between the sixth and the eighth centuries. The phases when such councils were prepared and assembled show a remarkable conjunction of religious and political issues that could extend far beyond the Roman Empire, as they were under the direct control of the emperor in Constantinople. This article will take a closer look at three cases of ecclesiastical councils that involved Eastern and Western Rome, Italy and Gaul. In all three examples, religious issues went along with political negotiations, and all can be characterized by very intense long-distance communication, as becomes visible not only in the official spread of documents and the translation of conciliar acts, but also in unofficial letters, rumors and propaganda.

Schlagworte: Western and Eastern Christianity, Three-Chapters controversy (6th century), Lateran Council of 649, Chronicle of Fredegar, 6th Ecumenical Council (680/681), Chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor

Historians have questioned the contribution of Constantine to the city of Rome, but they have not usually considered that of Constantius II, which may be tied to his presence in the city in 357 and to his dealings with the bishops of Rome. The traditional image of Constantine’s contribution to the creation of Christian Rome, the supposed site of his conversion and thus integral to the history of the Christianisation of the Roman Empire, is essentially one that was created in the sixth century, set out in the Liber Pontificalis. Although many of the legends recounting Constantine’s dealings with the papacy, most especially his supposed baptism at the hands of Pope Silvester, have long been known to be false, the narrative of his involvement in the creation of many of Rome’s greatest churches has largely survived. But the papal view of Constantine was certainly not the only one in circulation before the sixth century, as Jerome’s continuation of the Chronicle of Eusebius, with its much more jaundiced view, attests. Moreover, one knock-on effect of questioning the account provided by the Liber Pontificalis is the need to consider the significance for Rome of Constantine’s son, Constantius II, who is given very little credit for the development of the Christian Empire, and indeed of Christian Rome, arguably above all because of his unquestioned association with the Arian, or rather Homoean, party, an association which, unlike that of his father, was never discreetly hidden by Christian historians. Yet there are reasons for thinking that Christian Rome in the later fourth century owed much to Constantius, as it did to Constantine, which this article will consider.

Schlagworte: Constantine, Constantius II, Rome, St Peter’s, Liberius, Felix, Homoeans

This essay endeavors to scrutinize the nuances in Einhard’s approach, probing the interplay between his role as an eyewitness and his use of rhetorical devices. The duality of his motives is notably articulated in Einhard’s prologue, as per the manuscript group (A). Einhard skillfully transforms descriptions of defeat or misfortune into commendations of virtue. Furthermore, manuscript group (B), featuring an epilogue penned by Gerward, offers valuable insights into the overarching theme of Einhard’s biography: Carolingian kingship – its rise, transmission, the imperial title and the intricacies of succession. Einhard extends beyond a mere biography and glorifies Louis the Pious, positioning him as the rightful heir and destination of the familial kingship in order to glorify Charlemagne, Louis the Pious and the Carolingian dynasty.

Schlagworte: biography, Charlemagne, Louis the Pious, manuscript studies, Einhard, Gerward, Carolingian kingship, historiography

Recent studies of the post-Roman West have shown a reconfiguration of the social and political structures of the Roman Empire, where local and regional elites worked together with barbarian governors and generals to establish their own »little Romes«. When Gregory, the future bishop of Tours, was growing up in the Auvergne in the 540s, these little Romes in Gaul had already become part of a common political framework: the Merovingian kingdom. It was the only post-Roman kingdom whose territory extended from the North Sea to the Mediterranean and from the Rhineland to the English Channel and the Atlantic coast. The integration of this extensive and diverse territory into one of the most prosperous post-Roman polities in the Christian West was an impressive political and cultural achievement. This article will show that Gregory, who was closely woven into the social and political fabric of this post-Roman kingdom was well aware of that. Against this background, I argue that during a time in which diverse communities and people came together to interact in the new legal and social frameworks of the Merovingian kingdom. Gregory often used his stories to underline the potential of a Christian vision of community to integrate a post-Roman diversity in the relatively new social and political framework of a post-Roman kingdom.

Schlagworte: Gregory of Tours, Decem libri historiarum, Merovingian period, post-Roman West, formation of the Merovingian kingdom